Abundant refractory sulfur in protoplanetary disks

Abstract

Sulfur is one of the most abundant elements in the Universe, with important roles in astro-, geo-, and biochemistry. Its main reservoirs in planet-forming disks have previously eluded detection: gaseous molecules only account for $<1$\% of total elemental sulfur, with the rest likely in either ices or refractory minerals. Mechanisms such as giant planets can filter out dust from gas accreting onto disk-hosting stars. For stars above 1.4 solar masses, this leaves a chemical signature on the stellar photosphere that can be used to determine the fraction of each element that is locked in dust. Here, we present an application of this method to sulfur, zinc, and sodium. We analyse the accretion-contaminated photospheres of a sample of young stars and find $(89\pm 8)$\% of elemental sulfur is in refractory form in their disks. The main carrier is much more refractory than water ice, consistent with sulfide minerals such as FeS.

arXiv comment11 pages, 3 figures, accepted for publication in ApJ, correspondence welcome

References in corpus (36)

• The chemical composition of the Sun
• MultiNest: an efficient and robust Bayesian inference tool for cosmology and particle physics
• Multimodal nested sampling: an efficient and robust alternative to MCMC methods for astronomical data analysis
• The Disk Substructures at High Angular Resolution Project (DSHARP): I. Motivation, Sample, Calibration, and Overview
• Observations of the Icy Universe
• A Unified Representation of Gas-Phase Element Depletions in the Interstellar Medium
• Protoplanetary Disk Structures in Ophiuchus
• Ring shaped dust accumulation in transition disks
• Dust Evolution and the Formation of Planetesimals
• A spectroscopic survey of Herbig Ae/Be stars with X-Shooter I: Stellar parameters and accretion rates
• Volatile carbon locking and release in protoplanetary disks. A study of TW Hya and HD 100546
• Resetting chemical clocks of hot cores based on S-bearing molecules
• Sulfur depletion in dense clouds and circumstellar regions I. H2S ice abundance and UV-photochemical reactions in the H2O-matrix
• Accretion rates and accretion tracers of Herbig Ae/Be stars
• The Chemical Composition of an Extrasolar Kuiper-Belt-Object
• Fingerprints of giant planets in the photospheres of Herbig stars
• Two Beyond-Primitive Extrasolar Planetesimals
• Chemical abundances of magnetic and non-magnetic Herbig Ae/Be stars
• A new study of an old sink of sulfur in hot molecular cores: the sulfur residue
• Chemistry in disks. XI. Sulfur-bearing species as tracers of protoplanetary disk physics and chemistry: the DM Tau case
• The (w)hole survey: an unbiased sample study of transition disk candidates based on Spitzer catalogs
• CID: Chemistry in disks VI.sulfur-bearing molecules in the protoplanetary disks surrounding LkCa15, MWC480, DM Tau, and GO Tau
• Chemical analysis of 24 dusty (pre-)main-sequence stars
• Sulphur molecules in the circumstellar envelopes of M-type AGB stars
• The sulfur depletion problem: upper limits on the H2S2, HS2, and S2 gas-phase abundances toward the low-mass warm core IRAS16293-2422
• Polysulfanes on interstellar grains as a possible reservoir of interstellar sulphur
• Sulphur monoxide exposes a potential molecular disk wind from the planet-hosting disk around HD100546
• ALMA spectral survey of Supernova 1987A --- molecular inventory, chemistry, dynamics and explosive nucleosynthesis
• Variability of Disk Emission in Pre-Main Sequence and Related Stars. III. Exploring Structural Changes in the Pre-transitional Disk in HD 169142
• Sulphur-bearing molecules in AGB stars I: The occurrence of hydrogen sulfide
• Sulphur-bearing molecules in AGB stars II: Abundances and distributions of CS and SiS
• Stellar Photospheric Abundances as a Probe of Disks and Planets
• Molecular content of the circumstellar disk in AB Aur: First detection of SO in a circumstellar disk
• Measuring the mass accretion rates of Herbig Ae/Be stars with X-shooter
• A detailed spectroscopic analysis of the open cluster NGC 5460
• A spectroscopic study of the open cluster NGC 6250

Cited by in corpus (56)

• Observational Constraints on Black Hole Spin
• Photochemically-produced SO${}_2$ in the atmosphere of WASP-39b
• Astrochemistry and compositions of planetary systems
• Tracing the formation history of giant planets in protoplanetary disks with Carbon, Oxygen, Nitrogen and Sulphur
• How drifting and evaporating pebbles shape giant planets I: Heavy element content and atmospheric C/O
• Efficient Production of S${}_8$ in Interstellar Ices: The effects of cosmic ray-driven radiation chemistry and non-diffusive bulk reactions
• How drifting and evaporating pebbles shape giant planets II: Volatiles and refractories in atmospheres
• Breaking Degeneracies in Formation Histories by Measuring Refractory Content in Gas Giants
• Volatile-to-sulfur Ratios Can Recover a Gas Giant's Accretion History
• Sulphur monoxide emission tracing an embedded planet in the HD 100546 protoplanetary disk
• Ammonium hydrosulfide (NH4SH) as a potentially significant sulfur sink in interstellar ices
• SO and SiS Emission Tracing an Embedded Planet and Compact ${}^{12}$CO and ${}^{13}$CO Counterparts in the HD 169142 Disk
• JWST Observations of Young protoStars (JOYS): overview of program and early results
• H2S and SO2 detectability in Hot Jupiters: Sulfur species as indicator of metallicity and C/O ratio
• Herbig Stars: A Quarter Century of Progress
• Jupiter's "Cold" Formation in the Protosolar Disk Shadow: An Explanation for the Planet's Uniformly Enriched Atmosphere
• Exploring the link between star and planet formation with Ariel
• BOWIE-ALIGN: How formation and migration histories of giant planets impact atmospheric compositions
• Photoevaporation of protoplanetary discs with PLUTO+PRIZMO I. Lower X-ray-driven mass-loss rates due to enhanced cooling
• The Perseus ALMA Chemical Survey (PEACHES). III. Sulfur-bearing species tracing accretion and ejection processes in young protostars
• Chemical evolution in ices on drifting, planet-forming pebbles
• Measuring the atomic composition of planetary building blocks
• Oxygen depletion in giant planets with different formation histories
• Planet formation throughout the Milky Way: Planet populations in the context of Galactic chemical evolution
• Measuring elemental abundance ratios in protoplanetary disks at millimeter wavelengths
• The SVS13-A Class I chemical complexity as revealed by S-bearing species. SOLIS XIII
• Photoionized Herbig-Haro objects in the Orion Nebula through deep high-spectral resolution spectroscopy III: HH514
• ALMA high-resolution observations unveil planet formation shaping molecular emission in the PDS 70 disk
• Sublimation of refractory minerals in the gas envelopes of accreting rocky planets
• Classification of X-ray Flare Driven Chemical Variability in Protoplanetary Disks
• The sulphur species in hot rocky exoplanet atmospheres
• ExoLyn: a golden mean approach to multi-species cloud modelling in atmospheric retrieval
• Theoretical modelling of the adsorption of neutral and charged sulphur-bearing species on to olivine nanoclusters
• ALMA ACA study of the H${}_2$S/OCS ratio in low-mass protostars
• Jupiter-like uniform metal enrichment in a system of multiple giant exoplanets
• The compositions of the HR 8799 planets reflect accretion of both solids and metal-enriched gas
• JOYS: The [D/H] abundance derived from protostellar outflows across the Galactic disk measured with JWST
• Ariel stellar characterisation II. Chemical abundances of carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen for 181 planet-host FGK dwarf stars
• Constraining the formation of WASP-39b using JWST transit spectroscopy
• First results from the JWST Early Release Science Program Q3D: Benchmark Comparison of Optical and Mid-IR Tracers of a Dusty, Ionized Red Quasar Wind at z=0.435
• Ice origins of OCS and chemistry of CS2-bearing ice mantles
• Tracing the Inner Edge of the Habitable Zone with Sulfur Chemistry
• HD 163296 and its Giant Planets: Creation of Exo-comets, Interstellar Objects and Transport of Volatile Material
• Unraveling the non-equilibrium chemistry of the temperate sub-Neptune K2-18 b
• XRISM insights for interstellar Sulfur
• Constraints on the gas-phase C/O ratio of DR Tau's outer disk from CS, SO, and C${}_2$H observations
• The solar sulphur abundance in view of large-scale atomic structure calculations and 3D non-LTE models
• A major asymmetric ice trap in a planet-forming disk: II. prominent SO and SO2 pointing to C/O < 1
• Abundance analysis of stars hosting gas-rich debris disks
• DARWEN: Data-driven Algorithm for Reduction of Wide Exoplanetary Networks
• A Validated Low-to-Intermediate Mass Planetary Interior Structure Model and New Mass-Radius Relations
• Updated Ultraviolet Fluorescence Efficiencies of CS: Evidence for Model Discrepancies in the Enhancement of NUV-Derived CS Abundances in Comets
• Molecules with ALMA at Planet-forming Scales (MAPS) XII: Inferring the C/O and S/H ratios in Protoplanetary Disks with Sulfur Molecules
• Inferring the Gas-to-Dust Ratio in the Main Planet-Forming Region of Disks
• Protoplanetary Disk Chemistry
• JWST-TST High Contrast: First Direct Spectroscopy of GJ 504 b reveals Clouds and Possible Metal Enrichment