Main-sequence star super-flares based on entire Kepler data

Abstract

We wrote and used an automated flare detection Python script to search for super-flares on main-sequence stars of types A, F, G, K, and M in Kepler's long-cadence data from Q0 to Q17. We studied the statistical properties of the occurrence rate of super-flares. For the G-type data set, we compared our results with the previous results of Okamoto et al. 2021 by splitting the data set into four rotational bands. We found similar power law indices for the flare frequency distribution. Hence, we show that inclusion of high-pass filter, sample biases, gyrochronology and completeness of flare detection is of no significance, as our results are similar to Okamoto et al. 2021. We estimated that a super-flare on G-type dwarfs of energy of $10^{35}$ erg occurs on a star once every 4360 years. We found 4637 super-flares on 1896 G-type dwarfs. Moreover, we found 321, 1125, 4538 and 5445 super-flares on 136, 522, 770 and 312 dwarfs of types A, F, K and M, respectively. We found that the occurrence rate ($dN/dE$) of super-flares versus flare energy, $E$, shows a power-law distribution with $dN/dE\propto E^{-\alpha }$, where $\alpha \simeq$ 2.0 to 2.1 for the spectral types from F-type to M-type stars. In contrast, the obtained $\alpha \simeq$ 1.3 for A-type stars suggests that the flare conditions differ from the rest spectral-type stars. We note an increase in flare incidence rate in F-type to M-type stars and a decrease in A-type to F-type stars.

The final version accepted for publication in Research in Astronomy and Astrophysics (2023)

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• Spectroscopic observations of flares and superflares on AU Mic
• The white-light superflares from cool stars in GWAC triggers
• New cases of super-flares on slowly rotating solar-type stars and large amplitude super-flares in G- and M-type main-sequence stars
• Prediction of short stellar activity cycles using derived and established empirical relations between activity and rotation periods