Planetary detection limits taking into account stellar noise. II. Effect of stellar spot groups on radial-velocities

Abstract

The detection of small mass planets with the radial-velocity technique is now confronted with the interference of stellar noise. HARPS can now reach a precision below the meter-per-second, which corresponds to the amplitudes of different stellar perturbations, such as oscillation, granulation, and activity. Solar spot groups induced by activity produce a radial-velocity noise of a few meter-per-second. The aim of this paper is to simulate this activity and calculate detection limits according to different observational strategies. Based on Sun observations, we reproduce the evolution of spot groups on the surface of a rotating star. We then calculate the radial-velocity effect induced by these spot groups as a function of time. Taking into account oscillation, granulation, activity, and a HARPS instrumental error of 80 cm/s, we simulate the effect of different observational strategies in order to efficiently reduce all sources of noise. Applying three measurements per night of 10 minutes every three days, 10 nights a month seems the best tested strategy. Depending on the level of activity considered, from log(R'_HK)= -5 to -4.75, this strategy would allow us to find planets of 2.5 to 3.5 Earth masses in the habitable zone of a K1V dwarf. Using Bern's model of planetary formation, we estimate that for the same range of activity level, 15 to 35 % of the planets between 1 and 5 Earth masses and with a period between 100 and 200 days should be found with HARPS. A comparison between the performance of HARPS and ESPRESSO is also emphasized by our simulations. Using the same optimized strategy, ESPRESSO could find 1.3 Earth mass planets in the habitable zone of early-K dwarfs. In addition, 80 % of planets with mass between 1 and 5 Earth masses and with a period between 100 and 200 days could be detected.

11 pages, 11 figures, accepted for publication in A&A

References in corpus (15)

• Extrasolar planet population synthesis I: Method, formation tracks and mass-distance distribution
• The HARPS search for southern extra-solar planets XVIII. An Earth-mass planet in the GJ 581 planetary system
• The HARPS search for southern extra-solar planets XI. Super-Earths (5 & 8 M_Earth) in a 3-planet system
• Using the Sun to estimate Earth-like planets detection capabilities II. Impact of plages
• Planetary detection limits taking into account stellar noise. I. Observational strategies to reduce stellar oscillation and granulation effects
• TW Hydrae: evidence of stellar spots instead of a Hot Jupiter
• Patterns of photometric and chromospheric variation among Sun-like stars: A 20-year perspective
• Extrasolar planet population synthesis II: Statistical comparison with observation
• Photometric Variability in Kepler Target Stars: The Sun Among Stars -- A First Look
• Using the Sun to estimate Earth-like planets detection capabilities.I. Impact of cold spots
• Could we identify hot Ocean-Planets with CoRoT, Kepler and Doppler velocimetry?
• Definitive Sun-as-a-star p-mode frequencies: 23 years of BiSON observations
• The Jupiter Twin HD 154345b
• The Impact of Stellar Oscillations on Doppler Velocity Planet Searches
• Observations of solar-like oscillations

Cited by in corpus (82)

• A Gaussian process framework for modelling stellar activity signals in radial velocity data
• The GAPS Programme with HARPS-N@TNG XIV. Investigating giant planet migration history via improved eccentricity and mass determination for 231 transiting planets
• The HARPS search for Earth-like planets in the habitable zone: I -- Very low-mass planets around HD20794, HD85512 and HD192310
• Limits on Planetary Companions from Doppler Surveys of Nearby Stars
• SOAP 2.0: A tool to estimate the photometric and radial velocity variations induced by stellar spots and plages
• Inferring probabilistic stellar rotation periods using Gaussian processes
• Long-term magnetic activity of a sample of M-dwarf stars from the HARPS program I. Comparison of activity indices
• Magnetic Cycles and Rotation Periods of Late Type Stars from photometric time series
• Measuring precise radial velocities on individual spectral lines. I. Validation of the method and application to mitigate stellar activity
• Magnetic activity in the HARPS M-dwarf sample. The rotation-activity relationship for very low-mass stars through R'HK
• APF - The Lick Observatory Automated Planet Finder
• The Kepler-10 planetary system revisited by HARPS-N: A hot rocky world and a solid Neptune-mass planet
• Exoplanet Biosignatures: Observational Prospects
• Determining the Mass of Kepler-78b With Nonparametric Gaussian Process Estimation
• SOAP. A tool for the fast computation of photometry and radial velocity induced by stellar spots
• Habitable-zone super-Earth candidate in a six-planet system around the K2.5V star HD 40307
• HARPS-N observes the Sun as a star
• The HARPS search for southern extra-solar planets. XXX. Planetary systems around stars with solar-like magnetic cycles and short-term activity variation
• Uncovering the planets and stellar activity of CoRoT-7 using only radial velocities
• The New Generation Planetary Population Synthesis (NGPPS). III. Warm super-Earths and cold Jupiters: A weak occurrence correlation, but with a strong architecture-composition link
• Metallicity of solar-type stars with debris discs and planets
• The HARPS search for southern extra-solar planets XXXV. Planetary systems and stellar activity of the M dwarfs GJ 3293, GJ 3341, and GJ 3543
• Radial Velocity Planet Detection Biases at the Stellar Rotational Period
• Using the Sun to estimate Earth-like planets detection capabilities. V. Parameterizing the impact of solar activity components on radial velocities
• Modelling the photosphere of active stars for planet detection and characterization
• The HARPS search for southern extra-solar planets. XXXVI. Eight HARPS multi-planet systems hosting 20 super-Earth and Neptune-mass companions
• Radial Velocity Fitting Challenge. I. Simulating the data set including realistic stellar radial-velocity signals
• The EXPRES Stellar Signals Project II. State of the Field in Disentangling Photospheric Velocities
• New Methods for Finding Activity-Sensitive Spectral Lines: Combined Visual Identification and an Automated Pipeline Find a Set of 40 Activity Indicators
• Newly-Discovered Planets Orbiting HD~5319, HD~11506, HD~75784 and HD~10442 from the N2K Consortium
• On the long-term correlation between the flux in the Ca II H & K and Halpha lines for FGK stars
• Disentangling Time Series Spectra with Gaussian Processes: Applications to Radial Velocity Analysis
• Radial Velocity Variations of Photometrically Quiet, Chromospherically Inactive Kepler Stars: A Link Between RV Jitter and Photometric Flicker
• Revisiting the correlation between stellar activity and planetary surface gravity
• Detecting the spin-orbit misalignment of the super-Earth 55 Cnc e
• Modelling the Rossiter-McLaughlin Effect: Impact of the Convective Centre-to-Limb Variations in the Stellar Photosphere
• Deriving the radial-velocity variations induced by stellar activity from high-precision photometry - Test on HD189733 with simultaneous MOST/SOPHIE data
• Impact of stellar companions on precise radial velocities
• Two Small Transiting Planets and a Possible Third Body Orbiting HD 106315
• Statistical methods for exoplanet detection with radial velocities
• Rossiter-McLaughlin Observations of 55 Cnc e
• Optimizing Doppler Surveys for Planet Yield
• Detecting Exomoons Via Doppler Monitoring of Directly Imaged Exoplanets
• The correlation between photometric variability and radial velocity jitter, based on TESS and HARPS observations
• Stellar signal components seen in HARPS and HARPS-N solar radial velocities
• The Impact of Stellar Surface Magnetoconvection and Oscillations on the Detection of Temperate, Earth-Mass Planets Around Sun-Like Stars
• Radial velocity information content of M dwarf spectra in the near-infrared
• A spectro-polarimetric study of the planet-hosting G dwarf, HD 147513
• Star-planet interactions and selection effects from planet detection methods
• The Pan-Pacific Planet Search VI: Giant planets orbiting HD 86950 and HD 222076
• Spatially resolved spectroscopy across stellar surfaces. I. Using exoplanet transits to analyze 3-D stellar atmospheres
• The GAPS Programme with HARPS-N at TNG XVII. Line profile indicators and kernel regression as diagnostics of radial-velocity variations due to stellar activity in solar-like stars
• Efficient scheduling of astronomical observations. Application to the CARMENES radial-velocity survey
• Stellar activity as noise in exoplanet detection I. Methods and application to solar-like stars and activity cycles
• Deriving stellar inclination of slow rotators using stellar activity
• Photometric transit search for planets around cool stars from the western Italian Alps: A pilot study
• Stellar jitter from variable gravitational redshift: implications for RV confirmation of habitable exoplanets
• The KOBE experiment: K-dwarfs Orbited By habitable Exoplanets. Project goals, target selection and stellar characterization
• An Apodized Kepler Periodogram for Separating Planetary and Stellar Activity Signals
• Predicting Granulation "Flicker" and Radial Velocity "Jitter" from Spectroscopic Observables
• The Epoch of Giant Planet Migration Planet Search Program. I. Near-Infrared Radial Velocity Jitter of Young Sun-like Stars
• CORALIE radial-velocity search for companions around evolved stars (CASCADES). I. Sample definition and first results: Three new planets orbiting giant stars
• Spatially resolved spectroscopy across stellar surfaces. V. Observational prospects: Toward Earth-like exoplanet detection
• Spot cycle reconstruction: an empirical tool - Application to the sunspot cycle
• The HARPS search for southern extra-solar planets XL. Searching for Neptunes around metal-poor stars
• The GAPS Programme with HARPS-N@TNG XII: Characterization of the planetary system around HD108874
• The RoPES project with HARPS and HARPS-N. I. A system of super-Earths orbiting the moderately active K-dwarf HD 176986
• Bisectors of the HARPS Cross-Correlation-Function. The dependence on stellar atmospheric parameters
• Spectral Line Depth Variability in Radial Velocity Spectra
• A super-Earth on a close-in orbit around the M1V star GJ 740. A HADES and CARMENES collaboration
• Far beyond the Sun: II. Probing the stellar magnetism of the young Sun ι Horologii from the photosphere to its corona
• A close-in puffy Neptune with hidden friends: The enigma of TOI 620
• The need for a public forecast of stellar activity to optimise exoplanet radial velocity detections & transmission spectroscopy
• Coralie radial-velocity search for companions around evolved stars (CASCADES) III. A new Jupiter host-star: in-depth analysis of HD 29399 using TESS data
• Radii, masses, and transit-timing variations of the three-planet system orbiting the naked-eye star TOI-396
• ExoplANNET: A deep learning algorithm to detect and identify planetary signals in radial velocity data
• The Lowell Observatory Solar Telescope: A fiber feed into the EXtreme PREcision Spectrometer
• HADES RV programme with HARPS-N at TNG XIV. A candidate super-Earth orbiting the M-dwarf GJ 9689 with a period close to half the stellar rotation period
• The GAPS Programme at TNG -- XXIII. HD 164922 d: a close-in super-Earth discovered with HARPS-N in a system with a long-period Saturn mass companion
• Solar Flux Atlases: The new HARPS-N Quiet Sun Benchmark and Ca II H & K Lines Continuum Normalisation
• SPORES-HWO. II. Companion Mass Limits and Updated Planet Properties for 120 Future Exoplanet Imaging Targets from 35 yr of Precise Doppler Monitoring
• Modelling solar radial velocities and photometric variability with SOAPv4