Simulations of stellar convection with CO5BOLD

Abstract

High-resolution images of the solar surface show a granulation pattern of hot rising and cooler downward-sinking material -- the top of the deep-reaching solar convection zone. Convection plays a role for the thermal structure of the solar interior and the dynamo acting there, for the stratification of the photosphere, where most of the visible light is emitted, as well as for the energy budget of the spectacular processes in the chromosphere and corona. Convective stellar atmospheres can be modeled by numerically solving the coupled equations of (magneto)hydrodynamics and non-local radiation transport in the presence of a gravity field. The CO5BOLD code described in this article is designed for so-called "realistic" simulations that take into account the detailed microphysics under the conditions in solar or stellar surface layers (equation-of-state and optical properties of the matter). These simulations indeed deserve the label "realistic" because they reproduce the various observables very well -- with only minor differences between different implementations. The agreement with observations has improved over time and the simulations are now well-established and have been performed for a number of stars. Still, severe challenges are encountered when it comes to extending these simulations to include ideally the entire star or substellar object: the strong stratification leads to completely different conditions in the interior, the photosphere, and the corona. Simulations have to account for a large range of spatial and time scales and also non-equilibrium processes. Last but not least, realistic simulations are based on detailed microphysics and depend on the quality of the input data. This article provides an overview of the physical problem and the numerical solution and the capabilities of CO5BOLD, illustrated with a number of applications.

References in corpus (26)

• A grid of MARCS model atmospheres for late-type stars I. Methods and general properties
• The Solar Optical Telescope for the Hinode Mission: An Overview
• Global-Scale Turbulent Convection and Magnetic Dynamo Action in the Solar Envelope
• A solar surface dynamo
• Magnetic field generation in fully convective rotating spheres
• Penumbral structure and outflows in simulated sunspots
• Non-equilibrium hydrogen ionization in 2D simulations of the solar atmosphere
• Twisted flux tube emergence from the convection zone to the corona
• The solar chromosphere at high resolution with IBIS. I. New insights from the Ca II 854.2 nm line
• Excitation of solar-like oscillations across the HR diagram
• MHD simulations of penumbra fine structure
• Line shift, line asymmetry, and the 6Li/7Li isotopic ratio determination
• Strong horizontal photospheric magnetic field in a surface dynamo simulation
• Coupling from the photosphere to the chromosphere and the corona
• The horizontal internetwork magnetic field: numerical simulations in comparison to observations with Hinode
• Energy transport, overshoot, and mixing in the atmospheres of M-type main- and pre-main-sequence objects
• First Stars XI. Chemical composition of the extremely metal-poor dwarfs in the binary CS 22876--032
• Universality of the Small-Scale Dynamo Mechanism
• Time-dependent hydrogen ionisation in the solar chromosphere. I: Methods and first results
• Observation of a short-lived pattern in the solar chromosphere
• Hinode observations reveal boundary layers of magnetic elements in the solar photosphere
• Carbon monoxide in the solar atmosphere II. Radiative cooling by CO lines
• First local helioseismic experiments with CO5BOLD
• The CIFIST 3D model atmosphere grid
• 3D Simulation of Convection and Spectral Line Formation in A-type Stars
• Improving Large-scale Convection Zone-to-Corona Models

Cited by in corpus (240)

• A new extensive library of PHOENIX stellar atmospheres and synthetic spectra
• New evolutionary models for pre-main sequence and main sequence low-mass stars down to the hydrogen-burning limit
• Models of Stars, Brown Dwarfs and Exoplanets
• The Stagger-grid: A Grid of 3D Stellar Atmosphere Models - I. Methods and General Properties
• The Effective Temperature Scale of M dwarfs
• Spectroscopic analysis of DA white dwarfs with 3D model atmospheres
• Observational constraints on the origin of the elements. IV: The standard composition of the Sun
• Accuracy and precision of industrial stellar abundances
• A Grid of 3D Stellar Atmosphere Models of Solar Metallicity: I. General Properties, Granulation and Atmospheric Expansion
• Carbon-enhanced metal-poor stars: the most pristine objects?
• Solar science with the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array - A new view of our Sun
• Current challenges in the physics of white dwarf stars
• Non-LTE oxygen line formation in 3D hydrodynamic model stellar atmospheres
• Atmospheres from very low-mass stars to extrasolar planets
• A primordial star in the heart of the Lion
• Global 3D radiation-hydrodynamics models of AGB stars. Effects of convection and radial pulsations on atmospheric structures
• MPI-AMRVAC 3.0: updates to an open-source simulation framework
• Solar structure and evolution
• Non-local thermodynamic equilibrium stellar spectroscopy with 1D and <3D> models - I. Methods and application to magnesium abundances in standard stars
• High-precision stellar abundances of the elements - methods and applications
• Empirical Tests of Pre-Main-Sequence Stellar Evolution Models with Eclipsing Binaries
• First stars XVI. STIS/HST abundances of heavy-elements in the uranium-rich star CS 31082-001
• A dusty veil shading Betelgeuse during its Great Dimming
• Surface-effect corrections for solar-like oscillations using 3D hydrodynamical simulations
• Simulations of the solar near-surface layers with the CO5BOLD, MURaM, and Stagger codes
• The photospheric solar oxygen project: IV. 3D-NLTE investigation of the 777 nm triplet lines
• 3D Model Atmospheres for Extremely Low-Mass White Dwarfs
• 3D NLTE analysis of the most iron-deficient star, SMSS0313-6708
• Non-LTE line formation of Fe in late-type stars IV: Modelling of the solar centre-to-limb variation in 3D
• SP_Ace: a new code to derive stellar parameters and elemental abundances
• On The Evolution of Magnetic White Dwarfs
• Envelope Convection, Surface Magnetism and Spots in A- and late B-type Stars
• High-resolution abundance analysis of very metal-poor r-I stars
• What causes the large extensions of red-supergiant atmospheres? Comparisons of interferometric observations with 1-D hydrostatic, 3-D convection, and 1-D pulsating model atmospheres
• Consistent metallicity scale for cool dwarfs and giants. A benchmark test using the Hyades
• Improvements to Stellar Structure Models, Based on a Grid of 3D Convection Simulations. I. $T(\tau )$-Relations
• Chemical abundances of distant extremely metal-poor unevolved stars
• Numerical Simulations of Convective 3-Dimensional Red Supergiant Envelopes
• Stellar mixing length theory with entropy rain
• Granulation properties of giants, dwarfs, and white dwarfs from the CIFIST 3D model atmosphere grid
• Radial Velocity Fitting Challenge. I. Simulating the data set including realistic stellar radial-velocity signals
• Convective Overshoot and Macroscopic Diffusion in Pure-Hydrogen Atmosphere White Dwarfs
• Constructing stable 3D hydrodynamical models of giant stars
• Significance Mode Analysis (SigMA) for hierarchical structures. An application to the Sco-Cen OB association
• Abundances of lithium, oxygen, and sodium in the turn-off stars of Galactic globular cluster 47 Tuc
• Analytic, dust-independent mass-loss rates for red supergiant winds initiated by turbulent pressure
• Non-LTE Radiative Transfer with Turbospectrum
• The close circumstellar environment of Betelgeuse. IV. VLTI/PIONIER interferometric monitoring of the photosphere
• Evaluating local correlation tracking using CO5BOLD simulations of solar granulation
• Heading Gaia to measure atmospheric dynamics in AGB stars
• On the plasma flow inside magnetic tornadoes on the Sun
• Non-equilibrium helium ionization in an MHD simulation of the solar atmosphere
• Radiation hydrodynamics integrated in the code PLUTO
• Properties of the CO and H${}_2$O MOLsphere of the red supergiant Betelgeuse from VLTI/AMBER observations
• A high resolution spectroscopic atlas of M subdwarfs - Effective temperature and metallicity
• Convective line shifts for the Gaia RVS from the CIFIST 3D model atmosphere grid
• Constraints on the Initial-Final Mass Relation from Wide Double White Dwarfs
• Pure-hydrogen 3D model atmospheres of cool white dwarfs
• A super lithium-rich red-clump star in the open cluster Trumpler 5
• New constraints on the formation and settling of dust in the atmospheres of young M and L dwarfs
• The Alfvénic nature of chromospheric swirls
• Horizontal spreading of planetary debris accreted by white dwarfs
• Three-dimensional interferometric, spectrometric, and planetary views of Procyon
• Three-dimensional hydrodynamical CO5BOLD model atmospheres of red giant stars. III. Line formation in the atmospheres of giants located close to the base of RGB
• Global 3D radiation-hydrodynamical models of AGB stars with dust-driven winds
• Exploring the origin of clumpy dust clouds around cool giants. A global 3D RHD model of a dust-forming M-type AGB star
• Stellar granulation as seen in disk-integrated intensity. II. Theoretical scaling relations compared with observations
• Multidimensional realistic modelling of Cepheid-like variables. I: Extensions of the ANTARES code
• 3D hydrodynamical CO5BOLD model atmospheres of red giant stars: I. Atmospheric structure of a giant located near the RGB tip
• 3D spectroscopic analysis of helium-line white dwarfs
• GIANO Y-band spectroscopy of dwarf stars: Phosphorus, Sulphur, and Strontium abundances
• MPS-ATLAS: A fast all-in-one code for synthesising stellar spectra
• Lithium abundance and 6Li/7Li ratio in the active giant HD123351 I. A comparative analysis of 3D and 1D NLTE line-profile fits
• Is the Sun Lighter than the Earth? Isotopic CO in the Photosphere, Viewed through the Lens of 3D Spectrum Synthesis
• Empirical Determination of Convection Parameters in White Dwarfs I : Whole Earth Telescope Observations of EC14012-1446
• Vortex Flows in the Solar Chromosphere -- I. Automatic detection method
• Pure-helium 3D model atmospheres of white dwarfs
• Tomography of cool giant and supergiant star atmospheres II. Signature of convection in the atmosphere of the red supergiant star $\mu$ Cep
• FIRTEZ-dz: A Forward and Inverse solver of the polarized Radiative Transfer Equation under Zeeman regime in geometrical scale
• The solar gravitational redshift from HARPS-LFC Moon spectra. A test of the General Theory of Relativity
• Calibration of the mixing length theory for structures of helium-dominated atmosphere white dwarfs
• Small-scale dynamos: From idealized models to solar and stellar applications
• An in-depth spectroscopic examination of molecular bands from 3D hydrodynamical model atmospheres I. Formation of the G-band in metal-poor dwarf stars
• A k-omega model for stellar turbulent convection
• Near-infrared spectro-interferometry of Mira variables and comparisons to 1D dynamic model atmospheres and 3D convection simulations
• Internal Gravity Waves in the Magnetized Solar Atmosphere. I. Magnetic Field Effects
• Evolutionary models for ultracool dwarfs
• Radiation hydrodynamics in simulations of the solar atmosphere
• Spatially resolved spectroscopy across stellar surfaces. I. Using exoplanet transits to analyze 3-D stellar atmospheres
• Correlations between sunspots and their moat flows
• The 3D non-LTE solar nitrogen abundance from atomic lines
• Korg: a modern 1D LTE spectral synthesis package
• Solar and Stellar Photospheric Abundances
• Calibration of the mixing-length parameter $\alpha$ for the MLT and FST models by matching with CO${}^5$BOLD models
• Using the CIFIST grid of CO5BOLD 3D model atmospheres to study the effects of stellar granulation on photometric colours. I. Grids of 3D corrections in the UBVRI, 2MASS, Hipparcos, Gaia, and SDSS systems
• Automated Swirl Detection Algorithm (ASDA) and Its Application to Simulation and Observational Data
• The photospheric solar oxygen project: III. Investigation of the centre-to-limb variation of the 630nm [OI]-NiI blend
• An in-depth spectroscopic examination of molecular bands from 3D hydrodynamical model atmospheres. II. Carbon-enhanced metal-poor 3D model atmospheres
• 3D non-LTE corrections for Li abundance and 6Li/7Li isotopic ratio in solar-type stars I. Application to HD 207129 and HD 95456
• Spectral variability of photospheric radiation due to faculae II: Facular contrasts for cool main-sequence stars
• Lithium spectral line formation in stellar atmospheres. The impact of convection and NLTE effects
• The photospheric solar oxygen project: II. Non-concordance of the oxygen abundance derived from two forbidden lines
• An innovative and automated method for vortex identification. I. Description of the SWIRL algorithm
• Three-dimensional hydrodynamical CO5BOLD model atmospheres of red giant stars II. Spectral line formation in the atmosphere of a giant located near the RGB tip
• Galactic globular cluster 47 Tucanae: new ties between the chemical and dynamical evolution of globular clusters?
• Vortices evolution in the solar atmosphere: A dynamical equation for the swirling strength
• Chromospheric and Coronal Wave Generation in a Magnetic Flux Sheath
• Mono-enriched stars and Galactic chemical evolution -- Possible biases in observations and theory
• Properties of self-excited pulsations in 3D simulations of AGB stars and red supergiants
• Abundances of Na, Mg, and K in the atmospheres of red giant branch stars of Galactic globular cluster 47 Tucanae
• On the impact of the structural surface effect on global stellar properties and asteroseismic analyses
• Atmospheres and wind properties of non-spherical AGB stars
• Is Betelgeuse Really Rotating? Synthetic ALMA Observations of Large-scale Convection in 3D Simulations of Red Supergiants
• Magnetic tornadoes and chromospheric swirls -- Definition and classification
• Probing Red Supergiant dynamics through photo-center displacements measured by Gaia
• A three-dimensional hydrodynamical line profile analysis of iron lines and barium isotopes in HD140283
• Chemical Properties of the Local Galactic Disk and Halo. I. Fundamental Properties of 1,544 Nearby, High Proper-Motion M dwarfs and subdwarfs
• Applications of the $k$-$\omega$ model in stellar evolutionary models
• Near-polytropic simulations with a radiative surface
• Realistic Simulations of Stellar Surface Convection with ANTARES: I. Boundary Conditions and Model Relaxation
• Amplitudes of solar-like oscillations in red-giant stars: Evidences for non-adiabatic effects using CoRoT observations
• A Low Mach Number Solver: Enhancing Applicability
• Tomography of cool giant and supergiant star atmospheres. I. Validation of the method
• Spatially resolved spectroscopy across stellar surfaces. II. High-resolution spectra across HD209458 (G0V)
• Spectroscopic properties of a two-dimensional time-dependent Cepheid model II. Determination of stellar parameters and abundances
• Non-Boussinesq low-Prandtl number convection with a temperature-dependent thermal diffusivity
• The Multi-Species Farley-Buneman Instability in the Solar Chromosphere
• Three-dimensional hydrodynamical CO5BOLD model atmospheres of red giant stars. IV. Oxygen diagnostics in extremely metal-poor red giants with infrared OH lines
• Revealing the nature of magnetic shadows with numerical 3D-MHD simulations
• Influence of metallicity on the near-surface effect on oscillation frequencies
• Three-dimensional hydrodynamical CO5BOLD model atmospheres of red giant stars VI. First chromosphere model of a late-type giant
• Calibration of the convective parameters in stellar pulsation hydrocodes
• 3D Stagger model atmospheres with FreeEOS I. Exploring the impact of microphysics on the Sun
• Comparing the Effect of Radiative Transfer Schemes on Convection Simulations
• FIRST, a fibered aperture masking instrument II. Spectroscopy of the Capella binary system at the diffraction limit
• The energy of waves in the photosphere and lower chromosphere: II. Intensity statistics
• Non-magnetic photospheric bright points in 3D simulations of the solar atmosphere
• A high-precision abundance analysis of the nuclear benchmark star HD 20
• Key Issues Review: Numerical studies of turbulence in stars
• Spatially resolved spectroscopy across stellar surfaces. V. Observational prospects: Toward Earth-like exoplanet detection
• Barium abundance in red giants of NGC 6752. Non-local thermodynamic equilibrium and three-dimensional effects
• Acoustic-gravity wave propagation characteristics in 3D radiation hydrodynamic simulations of the solar atmosphere
• An upper limit on the sulphur abundance in HE 1327-2326
• Spatially resolved spectroscopy across stellar surfaces. III. Photospheric Fe I lines across HD189733A (K1 V)
• Spatially resolved spectroscopy across stellar surfaces. IV. F, G, & K-stars: Synthetic 3D spectra at hyper-high resolution
• Accurate effective temperature from H$\alpha$ profiles
• Abundances of the light elements from UV (HST) and red (ESO) spectra in the very old star HD 84937
• On line contribution functions and examining spectral line formation in 3D model stellar atmospheres
• The metal-poor end of the Spite plateau. II. Detailed chemical investigation
• Formal Solutions for Polarized Radiative Transfer. IV. Numerical Performances in Practical Problems
• Spectroscopic properties of a two-dimensional time-dependent Cepheid model I. Description and validation of the model
• On the computation of eigenfrequencies for equilibrium models including turbulent pressure
• Hunting for brown dwarf binaries and testing atmospheric models with X-Shooter
• The chemical composition of red giants in 47 Tucanae. II. Magnesium isotopes and pollution scenarios
• Three-dimensional hydrodynamical CO5BOLD model atmospheres of red giant stars. V. Oxygen abundance in the metal-poor giant HD 122563 from OH UV lines
• Optical interferometry and Gaia measurement uncertainties reveal the physics of asymptotic giant branch stars
• Be and O in the ultra metal-poor dwarf 2MASS J18082002-5104378: The Be-O correlation
• Analysing the effects of apodizing windows on local correlation tracking using Nirvana simulations of convection
• High-resolution wave dynamics in the lower solar atmosphere
• VLTI-PIONIER imaging of the red supergiant V602 Carinae
• Sun-like stars unlike the Sun: Clues for chemical anomalies of cool stars
• Using the CIFIST grid of CO5BOLD 3D model atmospheres to study the effects of stellar granulation on photometric colours. II. The role of convection accross the H-R diagram
• The convective surface of the red supergiant Antares. VLTI/PIONIER interferometry in the near infrared
• Interaction of magnetic fields with a vortex tube at solar subgranular scale
• Selected topics in the evolution of low-mass stars
• An investigation of the formation and line properties of MgH in 3D hydrodynamical model stellar atmospheres
• The extended atmosphere and circumstellar environment of the cool evolved star VX Sagittarii as seen by MATISSE
• Methodology for estimating the magnetic Prandtl number and application to solar surface small-scale dynamo simulations
• Flares on A-type stars: Evidence for heating of solar corona by nanoflares?
• Solar center-to-limb variation in Rossiter-McLaughlin and exoplanet transmission spectroscopy
• Magnetic activity of red giants: correlation between the amplitude of solar-like oscillations and chromospheric indicators
• SDSS J102915.14+172927.9: Revisiting the chemical pattern
• Abundances in a sample of turnoff and subgiant stars in NGC 6121 (M4)
• Hydrodynamical model atmospheres: Their impact on stellar spectroscopy and asteroseismology of late-type stars
• Synthetic observations of internal gravity waves in the solar atmosphere
• Solar Photospheric Spectrum Microvariability I. Theoretical searches for proxies of radial-velocity jittering
• Tomography of cool giant and supergiant star atmospheres III. Validation of the method on VLTI/AMBER observations of the Mira star S Ori
• New simulations of accreting DA white dwarfs: inferring accretion rates from the surface contamination
• Modelling the asymmetries of the Sun's radial $p$-mode line profiles
• Hanle rotation signatures in Sr I 4607 Å
• Toward fully compressible numerical simulations of stellar magneto-convection with the RAMSES code
• Small-Scale Magnetic Fields are Critical to Shaping Solar Gamma-Ray Emission
• Does the ${\nu }_{\max }$ scaling relation depend on metallicity? Insights from 3D convection simulations
• The convective photosphere of the red supergiant CE Tau. I. VLTI/PIONIER H-band interferometric imaging
• Probing 3D and NLTE models using APOGEE observations of globular cluster stars
• Collisions of Terrestrial Worlds: The Occurrence of Extreme Mid-Infrared Excesses around Low-Mass Field Stars
• Spatially resolved measurements of the solar photospheric oxygen abundance
• Analysis of stellar spectra with 3D and NLTE models
• A new view on exoplanet transits: Transit of Venus described using three-dimensional solar atmosphere Stagger-grid simulations
• Radiative transfer with opacity distribution functions: Application to narrow band filters
• Internal Gravity Waves in the Magnetized Solar Atmosphere. II. Energy Transport
• Two-dimensional non-LTE \ion{O}{I} 777\,nm line formation in radiation hydrodynamics simulations of Cepheid atmospheres
• Theoretical predictions of surface light element abundances in protostellar and pre-Main Sequence phase
• The solar photospheric silicon abundance according to CO5BOLD: Investigating line broadening, magnetic fields, and model effects
• Solar magneto-convection
• The polarization signature of photospheric magnetic fields in 3D MHD simulations and observations at disk center
• The signature of granulation in a solar power spectrum as seen with CO${}^5$BOLD
• Interpolation of spectra from 3D model atmospheres
• Multi-Height Observations of Atmospheric Gravity Waves at Solar Disk Center
• Betelgeuse and the red supergiants
• Review: progress in NLTE calculations and their application to large data-sets
• On the influence of magnetic topology on the propagation of internal gravity waves in the solar atmosphere
• Turbulent radiative diffusion and turbulent Newtonian cooling
• The time step constraint in radiation hydrodynamics
• On the 5-Minute Oscillations of Photospheric and Chromospheric Swirls
• An Assessment of and Solution to the Intensity Diffusion Error Intrinsic to Short-Characteristic Radiative Transfer Methods
• Abundance of zinc in the red giants of Galactic globular cluster 47 Tucanae
• Tracing the evolution of radiation-MHD simulations of solar and stellar atmospheres in the Lagrangrian frame
• Analysis of Pseudo-Lyapunov Exponents of Solar Convection Using State-of-the-Art Observations
• Unveiling the nature of HE 0107-5240
• Chemical abundances in metal-poor giants: limitations imposed by the use of classical 1D stellar atmosphere models
• M3DIS -- A grid of 3D radiation-hydrodynamics stellar atmosphere models for stellar surveys. II. Carbon-enhanced metal-poor stars
• Asymmetries in asymptotic giant branch stars and their winds. I. From 3D RHD models to synthetic observables
• M Subdwarf Research III. Spectroscopic Diagnostics for Breaking Parameter Degeneracy
• Isotope Spectroscopy
• Revisiting the statistical equilibrium of H${}^{-}$ in stellar atmospheres
• Abundances of Mg and K in the atmospheres of turn-off stars in Galactic globular cluster 47 Tucanae
• Seismic study of solar convection and overshooting: results of nonlocal convection
• Abundance of strontium in the Galactic globular cluster 47 Tuc
• Inference of horizontal velocity fields from the induction equation in the solar atmosphere. I. Analytical and numerical solutions in 2D
• Red Supergiants in the Milky Way and Nearby Galaxies
• Granulation signatures in 3D hydrodynamical simulations: evaluating background model performance using a Bayesian nested sampling framework
• A new framework of multidimensional pulsating stellar envelopes I.: Properties of turbulent convection in static RR Lyrae envelope models with SPHERLS
• 3D non-LTE Ca II line formation in metal-poor FGK stars. I. Abundance corrections, radial velocity corrections, and synthetic spectra
• Implications of time-dependent molecular chemistry in metal-poor dwarf stars
• Non-equilibrium Equation of State in stellar atmospheres
• Synthetic activity indicators for M-type dwarf stars
• Simulating the outer layers of rapidly rotating stars
• Spherically symmetric model atmospheres using approximate lambda operators V. Static inhomogeneous atmospheres of hot dwarf stars
• The convection of close red supergiant stars observed with near-infrared interferometry
• Stellar granulation and interferometry
• Chroma+GAS: An Expedited Solution for the Chemical Equilibrium for Cool Stellar Atmospheres
• Numerical Simulations of Cosmic-Ray Acceleration at Core-Collapse Supernovae
• Pathways for Observing Stellar Surfaces Using 3D Hydrodynamical Simulations of Evolved Stars
• Image Quality Specification for Solar Telescopes
• The SAPP pipeline for the determination of stellar abundances and atmospheric parameters of stars in the core program of the PLATO mission
• Small-scale vortical motions in cool stellar atmospheres
• VLTI-GRAVITY measurements of cool evolved stars: II. Pulsation properties and mass-loss process of the Mira star R Car and the red supergiant VX Sgr
• The solar carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen abundances from a 3D LTE analysis of molecular lines
• Solar photospheric spectrum microvariability III. Radial velocities and line profiles in magnetic active-region granulation