High-resolution measurements of face-to-face contact patterns in a primary school

Abstract

Little quantitative information is available on the mixing patterns of children in school environments. Describing and understanding contacts between children at school would help quantify the transmission opportunities of respiratory infections and identify situations within schools where the risk of transmission is higher. We report on measurements carried out in a French school (6-12 years children), where we collected data on the time-resolved face-to-face proximity of children and teachers using a proximity-sensing infrastructure based on radio frequency identification devices. Data on face-to-face interactions were collected on October 1st and 2nd, 2009. We recorded 77,602 contact events between 242 individuals. Each child has on average 323 contacts per day with 47 other children, leading to an average daily interaction time of 176 minutes. Most contacts are brief, but long contacts are also observed. Contacts occur mostly within each class, and each child spends on average three times more time in contact with classmates than with children of other classes. We describe the temporal evolution of the contact network and the trajectories followed by the children in the school, which constrain the contact patterns. We determine an exposure matrix aimed at informing mathematical models. This matrix exhibits a class and age structure which is very different from the homogeneous mixing hypothesis. The observed properties of the contact patterns between school children are relevant for modeling the propagation of diseases and for evaluating control measures. We discuss public health implications related to the management of schools in case of epidemics and pandemics. Our results can help define a prioritization of control measures based on preventive measures, case isolation, classes and school closures, that could reduce the disruption to education during epidemics.

References in corpus (5)

• Dynamics of person-to-person interactions from distributed RFID sensor networks
• What's in a crowd? Analysis of face-to-face behavioral networks
• High resolution dynamical mapping of social interactions with active RFID
• A High-Resolution Human Contact Network for Infectious Disease Transmission
• Close encounters in a pediatric ward: measuring face-to-face proximity and mixing patterns with wearable sensors

Cited by in corpus (189)

• Temporal Networks
• Statistical physics of vaccination
• Modern temporal network theory: A colloquium
• Simplicial Closure and higher-order link prediction
• Estimating Potential Infection Transmission Routes in Hospital Wards Using Wearable Proximity Sensors
• Measuring large-scale social networks with high resolution
• Contact patterns among high school students
• Detecting the community structure and activity patterns of temporal networks: a non-negative tensor factorization approach
• Can co-location be used as a proxy for face-to-face contacts?
• Mitigation of infectious disease at school: targeted class closure vs school closure
• Topological strata of weighted complex networks
• Data on face-to-face contacts in an office building suggests a low-cost vaccination strategy based on community linkers
• Metrics for Graph Comparison: A Practitioner's Guide
• Significant Scales in Community Structure
• Bursty Human Dynamics
• An infectious disease model on empirical networks of human contact: bridging the gap between dynamic network data and contact matrices
• Optimal Containment of Epidemics in Temporal and Adaptive Networks
• Cumulative effects of triadic closure and homophily in social networks
• Inference of hyperedges and overlapping communities in hypergraphs
• Gender homophily from spatial behavior in a primary school: a sociometric study
• Immunization strategies for epidemic processes in time-varying contact networks
• Stability of Spreading Processes over Time-Varying Large-Scale Networks
• Temporal network structures controlling disease spreading
• The basic reproduction number as a predictor for epidemic outbreaks in temporal networks
• Hypergraph Motifs: Concepts, Algorithms, and Discoveries
• How memory generates heterogeneous dynamics in temporal networks
• Epidemic Threshold in Continuous-Time Evolving Networks
• Group interactions modulate critical mass dynamics in social convention
• Detecting sequences of system states in temporal networks
• How Much and When Do We Need Higher-order Information in Hypergraphs? A Case Study on Hyperedge Prediction
• Compensating for population sampling in simulations of epidemic spread on temporal contact networks
• Randomized reference models for temporal networks
• Cost-efficient vaccination protocols for network epidemiology
• Temporal interactions facilitate endemicity in the susceptible-infected-susceptible epidemic model
• Velocity-enhanced Cooperation of Moving Agents playing Public Goods Games
• Vector Centrality in Hypergraphs
• Activity clocks: spreading dynamics on temporal networks of human contact
• The role of homophily in the emergence of opinion controversies
• Mining (maximal) span-cores from temporal networks
• Data Mining on Social Interaction Networks
• Distinguishing simple and complex contagion processes on networks
• Estimating within-school contact networks to understand influenza transmission
• The structured backbone of temporal social ties
• Hyperedge overlap drives explosive collective behaviors in systems with higher-order interactions
• Expectation-Maximizing Network Reconstruction and MostApplicable Network Types Based on Binary Time Series Data
• Large network community detection by fast label propagation
• Hyper-cores promote localization and efficient seeding in higher-order processes
• Constrained information flows in temporal networks reveal intermittent communities
• Evolutionary dynamics of time-resolved social interactions
• Modelling Non-Linear Consensus Dynamics on Hypergraphs
• The distance backbone of complex networks
• Tensor Entropy for Uniform Hypergraphs
• Using higher-order Markov models to reveal flow-based communities in networks
• Higher-Order Components Dictate Higher-Order Contagion Dynamics in Hypergraphs
• Natural emergence of clusters and bursts in network evolution
• Hypergraphx: a library for higher-order network analysis
• Synchronization in temporal simplicial complexes
• The simpliciality of higher-order networks
• Beyond Contagion: Reality Mining Reveals Complex Patterns of Social Influence
• The Temporal Rich Club Phenomenon
• From temporal network data to the dynamics of social relationships
• Relevance of temporal cores for epidemic spread in temporal networks
• Locally Adaptive Dynamic Networks
• Model reproduces individual, group and collective dynamics of human contact networks
• Effects of temporal correlations in social multiplex networks
• Randomizing hypergraphs preserving degree correlation and local clustering
• Wearable proximity sensors for monitoring a mass casualty incident exercise: a feasibility study
• Temporal networks of face-to-face human interactions
• Non massive immunization to contain spreading on complex networks
• Flow stability for dynamic community detection
• Influence maximization on temporal networks
• Robust modeling of human contact networks across different scales and proximity-sensing techniques
• How to estimate epidemic risk from incomplete contact diaries data?
• Objective measures for sentinel surveillance in network epidemiology
• Epidemic Spreading and Digital Contact Tracing: Effects of Heterogeneous Mixing and Quarantine Failures
• Epidemic risk from friendship network data: an equivalence with a non-uniform sampling of contact networks
• Scaling Properties in Time-Varying Networks with Memory
• Hyperlink communities in higher-order networks
• Similarity forces and recurrent components in human face-to-face interaction networks
• Dynamic topologies of activity-driven temporal networks with memory
• Information content of contact-pattern representations and predictability of epidemic outbreaks
• Structure and inference in hypergraphs with node attributes
• Building surrogate temporal network data from observed backbones
• Ranking influential spreaders is an ill-defined problem
• Infection patterns in simple and complex contagion processes on networks
• Epidemics with containment measures
• Simultaneous Matrix Orderings for Graph Collections
• Clustering for epidemics on networks: a geometric approach
• Activation thresholds in epidemic spreading with motile infectious agents on scale-free networks
• Directed Percolation in Temporal Networks
• Generative models of simultaneously heavy-tailed distributions of inter-event times on nodes and edges
• Multiplex Network Regression: How do relations drive interactions?
• Temporal stability of network partitions
• Systems Applications of Social Networks
• The impact of homophily on digital proximity tracing
• Estimating the outcome of spreading processes on networks with incomplete information: a mesoscale approach
• Higher-order link prediction via local information
• Directed Percolation in Random Temporal Network Models with Heterogeneities
• Modeling framework unifying contact and social networks
• Entropy-growth-based model of emotionally charged online dialogues
• Latent geometry and dynamics of proximity networks
• The structural evolution of temporal hypergraphs through the lens of hyper-cores
• Embedding and trajectories of temporal networks
• Epidemic spreading in group-structured populations
• An Online and Nonuniform Timeslicing Method for Network Visualisation
• Filtering higher-order datasets
• Clustering of heterogeneous populations of networks
• Compressing network populations with modal networks reveals structural diversity
• Effective submodularity of influence maximization on temporal networks
• Rank the spreading influence of nodes using dynamic Markov process
• Opinion dynamics on tie-decay networks
• Quantifying agent impacts on contact sequences in social interactions
• Augmentations of Forman's Ricci Curvature and their Applications in Community Detection
• Estimating household contact matrices structure from easily collectable metadata
• Hidden dependence of spreading vulnerability on topological complexity
• Revealing latent factors of temporal networks for mesoscale intervention in epidemic spread
• Two types of densification scaling in the evolution of temporal networks
• An embedding-based distance for temporal graphs
• Navigating temporal networks
• Bayesian Learning of Dynamic Multilayer Networks
• Correlations Between Human Mobility and Social Interaction Reveal General Activity Patterns
• Building connections: How scientists meet each other during a conference
• Detecting periodic time scales in temporal networks
• Community detection in sparse time-evolving graphs with a dynamical Bethe-Hessian
• Multi-layer network approach in modeling epidemics in an urban town
• Gossip on Weighted Networks
• Spectral embedding for dynamic networks with stability guarantees
• Algorithmic Aspects of Temporal Betweenness
• Lifetime distributions for adjacency relationships in a Vicsek model
• Iterative embedding and reweighting of complex networks reveals community structure
• Impact of temporal correlations on high risk outbreaks of independent and cooperative SIR dynamics
• Locating Community Smells in Software Development Processes Using Higher-Order Network Centralities
• Facility Location in Evolving Metrics
• Predicting epidemic evolution on contact networks from partial observations
• Dynamic Network Embeddings for Network Evolution Analysis
• Extracting the multi-timescale activity patterns of online financial markets
• Hyperbolic Mapping of Human Proximity Networks
• Comparing Temporal Graphs Using Dynamic Time Warping
• Emerging Activity Temporal Hypergraph: a model for generating realistic time-varying hypergraphs
• Active and reactive behaviour in human mobility: the influence of attraction points on pedestrians
• A semiparametric extension of the stochastic block model for longitudinal networks
• Flow of temporal network properties under local aggregation and time shuffling: a tool for characterizing, comparing and classifying temporal networks
• Impact of environmental changes on the dynamics of temporal networks
• Generating surrogate temporal networks from mesoscale building blocks
• $P$-persistent homology of finite topological spaces
• Unsupervised Network Embedding for Graph Visualization, Clustering and Classification
• Inferring Person-to-person Proximity Using WiFi Signals
• Temporal networks with node-specific memory: unbiased inference of transition probabilities, relaxation times and structural breaks
• Duality between Temporal Networks and Signals: Extraction of the Temporal Network Structures
• Measuring and utilizing temporal network dissimilarity
• Higher-order dissimilarity measures for hypergraph comparison
• Clustering Coefficient Reflecting Pairwise Relationships within Hyperedges
• Measuring Equality and Hierarchical Mobility on Abstract Complex Networks
• A novel analytical formulation of the Axelrod model
• Span-core Decomposition for Temporal Networks: Algorithms and Applications
• Optimal Containment of Epidemics over Temporal Activity-Driven Networks
• Adaptive behaviors neutralize bistable explosive transitions in higher-order contagion
• Higher-order adaptive behaviors outperform pairwise strategies in mitigating contagion dynamics
• Impact of temporal connectivity patterns on epidemic process
• Identifying the temporal dynamics of densification and sparsification in human contact networks
• Linking Through Time: Memory-Enhanced Community Discovery in Temporal Networks
• Scalable Distributed Reproduction Numbers of Network Epidemics with Differential Privacy
• Sampling nodes and hyperedges via random walks on large hypergraphs
• Generalizing Egocentric Temporal Neighborhoods to probe for spatial correlations in temporal networks and infer their topology
• Systematic assessment of the quality of fit of the stochastic block model for empirical networks
• Dynamics of cold random hyperbolic graphs with link persistence
• Optimizing travel routes using temporal networks constructed from GPS data
• Spline tie-decay temporal networks
• A Visual Analytics Framework for Contrastive Network Analysis
• Inference and Visualization of Community Structure in Attributed Hypergraphs Using Mixed-Membership Stochastic Block Models
• Multilateration of Random Networks with Community Structure
• Evolving nature of human contact networks with its impact on epidemic processes
• Uplifting edges in higher order networks: spectral centralities for non-uniform hypergraphs
• Link Prediction and the Role of Stronger Ties in Networks of Face-to-Face Proximity
• The Feature-First Block Model
• Measuring close proximity interactions in summer camps during the COVID-19 pandemic
• HIF: The hypergraph interchange format for higher-order networks
• Variable selection for (realistic) stochastic blockmodels
• Correlations of network trajectories
• Sensing and Modeling Human Behavior Using Social Media and Mobile Data
• Beyond network structure: How heterogenous susceptibility modulates the spread of epidemics
• The Mathematics of Human Contact: Developing a Model for Social Interaction in School Children
• Higher-order contagion processes in 3.99 dimensions
• Spectral Multi-scale Community Detection in Temporal Networks with an Application
• Resource Allocation for Containing Epidemics from Temporal Network Data
• Outliers Detection in Networks with Missing Links
• Detecting Dynamic States of Temporal Networks Using Connection Series Tensors
• Two Categories of Indoor Interactive Dynamics of a Large-scale Human Population in a WiFi covered university campus
• An Efficient Procedure for Mining Egocentric Temporal Motifs