Red Supergiant Mass Loss and Mass-Loss Rates

Abstract

This review discusses the causes, nature, importance and observational evidence of mass loss by red supergiants. It arrives at the perception that mass loss finds its origin in the gravity which makes the star a star in the first place, and is a mechanism for the star to equilibrate. This is corroborated by a careful examination of various popular historical and recent empirical mass-loss rate prescriptions and theoretical works, and which provides no evidence for an explicit dependence of red supergiant mass loss on metallicity though dust-associated mass loss becomes less prevalent at lower metallicity. It also identifies a common problem in methods that use tracers of mass loss, which do not correct for varying scaling factors (often because there is no information available on which to base such correction) and as a result tend to underestimate mass-loss rates at the lower end. Conversely, dense, extended chromospheres in themselves do not translate into high mass-loss rates, and the significance of stochastic mass loss can be overstated. On a population scale, on the other hand, binary interaction acts as a stochastic agent of mass loss of great import. In all, evidence is overwhelming that points at red supergiants at the lower mass end losing mass at insufficient rates to shed their mantles before core collapse, but massive (at birth) red supergiants to be prone to intense, dusty mass loss which sees them become hotter stars before meeting their fate. This is consistent with the identified progenitors of hydrogen-rich supernovae. Supernova evolution holds great promise to probe the mass loss but we caution against confusing atmospheres with winds. Finally, promising avenues are looked into, which could forge step-change progress in what has been a long and arduous search for the holy grail of red supergiant mass loss. We may yet find it!

Invited review for the Galaxies Special Issue on "Red Supergiants -- Crucial Signposts for the Fate of Massive Stars."

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