Cluster formation via sonic depletion forces in levitated granular matter

Abstract

The properties of small clusters can differ dramatically from the bulk phases of the same constituents. In equilibrium, cluster assembly has been recently explored, whereas out of equilibrium, the physical principles of clustering remain elusive. These principles underlie phenomena from molecular assembly to the formation of planets from granular matter. Here, we introduce acoustic levitation as a platform to experimentally probe the formation of nonequilibrium small structures in a controlled environment. We focus on the minimal models of cluster formation: six and seven millimetre-scale particles in two dimensions. Experiments and modelling reveal that, in contrast to thermal colloids, in non-equilibrium granular ensembles the magnitude of active fluctuations controls not only the assembly rates but also their assembly pathways and ground-state statistics. These results open up new possibilities for non-invasively manipulating macroscopic particles, tuning their interactions, and directing their assembly.

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• Precision measurement of tribocharging in acoustically levitated sub-millimeter grains
• Shaping contactless forces through anomalous acoustic scattering
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• High-energy velocity tails in uniformly heated granular materials
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• Electrostatics overcome acoustic collapse to assemble, adapt, and activate levitated matter
• Steerable Radiation Forces with Frequency-Detuned Acoustic Metasurfaces