Revisiting Privacy Preservation in Brain-Computer Interfaces: Conceptual Boundaries, Risk Pathways, and a Protection-Strength Grading Framework

Lei Sun, Xiuqing Mao, Shuai Zhang +4

Brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) are moving rapidly from laboratory research into clinical, edge, and real-world settings. Under ISO/IEC 8663:2025, a BCI is a direct communication…