Machine Learning to Foundation Models: Artificial Intelligence for Nanophotonic Modeling and Scientific Discovery

Abstract

Artificial intelligence (AI) is increasingly used to model, design, and study nanophotonic systems. This review traces the development of the field from classical machine learning and deep learning to generative models, transfer learning, transformers, and emerging foundation models. It first introduces major nanophotonic platforms, including nanoparticles, nanoholes, metasurfaces, photonic crystals, multilayer thin films, and integrated photonic devices, together with their main forward and inverse problems. It then reviews data-driven methods for predicting optical spectra and fields, generating structures from target responses, improving designs through optimization, and accounting for fabrication constraints. Generative models are discussed as a way to produce multiple valid solutions to nonunique inverse problems, while transfer learning, few-shot learning, and physics-aware training help reduce data requirements and improve generalization. Recent domain-specific foundation models show that different optical structures and responses can be handled within shared representations, but current systems remain limited in scope and physical grounding. Future progress will depend on multimodal models that connect geometry, materials, spectra, electromagnetic (EM) fields, fabrication data, experiments, and scientific literature with reliable simulation and validation tools. Current foundation models remain domain-specific, and their extension to broader nanophotonic tasks will require stronger physical grounding and validation.