Label-efficient underwater image classification with logistic regression on frozen foundation model embeddings

Abstract

Underwater image classification is constrained by the cost of annotation and by the computational and methodological requirements of task-specific model development. We investigate whether frozen general-purpose foundation-model embeddings can reduce these requirements by extracting DINOv3 ViT-B/16 embeddings and training only a logistic regression classifier on the AQUA20 benchmark. We evaluate the approach across a range of annotation budgets, a repeated 80% training-subsample evaluation, and a full-training refit. With only 13 labelled images per category, corresponding to approximately 4% of the benchmark's official training partition, mean macro F1 reaches 81.8%; with 144 images per category it reaches 88.5%, compared to the published fully supervised ConvNeXt point estimate of 88.9% obtained with the complete training set (benchmark results reported without run-to-run variability). Using all official training labels, macro F1 reaches 91.5% (bootstrap 95% CI: 89.0-93.7%). Sensitivity analyses show that the main findings remain stable across ordinary downstream implementation choices, and persist after removing duplicate and near-duplicate test images identified in an audit of the official split. Preliminary evaluation on a second dataset suggests that overall performance level and the shape of the label efficiency curve are not unique to the AQUA20 dataset. Because the DINOv3 backbone remains frozen and only the downstream classifier is fitted, the approach avoids task-specific neural-network training and can be executed on commodity hardware. These findings establish linear classification on frozen foundation-model embeddings as a practical baseline for label-efficient underwater image classification.

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