Long Range Frequency Tuning for QML

Abstract

Angle-encoded variational quantum circuits admit a truncated Fourier series representation of their output, but approximating functions with maximum frequency $\ddot{I}{‰}_{\max }$ using fixed unary encoding requires $\mathcal{O}(\ddot{I}{‰}_{\max })$ encoding gates. Trainable-frequency (TF) circuits promise a reduction by learning the data-encoding prefactors alongside the ansatz parameters, adapting the accessible frequency spectrum to the target during training. We identify a practical barrier that prevents this promise from being realized: the prefactor gradient is suppressed by the spectral gap between the circuit's accessible frequencies and the target spectrum, independently of the ansatz parameters, confining gradient-driven prefactor movement to a narrow neighborhood of initialization. We propose \emph{ternary grid initialization} -- setting prefactors to $\{1,3,9,\dots ,3^{k-1}\}$ -- which ensures every target frequency within $[-\ddot{I}{‰}_{\max },\ddot{I}{‰}_{\max }]$ lies within $\frac{1}{2}$ unit of the accessible spectrum at initialization, so that the spectral-gap bound no longer constrains the target-driven gradient to be small. This is a necessary condition for reliable convergence, whose sufficiency we establish empirically. On a synthetic benchmark with target frequencies shifted well beyond the standard initialization range, ternary initialization achieves median $R^2=0.997$ versus $0.18$ for unary initialization, with $100\%$ of runs achieving $R^2>0.95$ against $0\%$. CMA-ES with $20\times$ the evaluation budget reaches only $25\%$ success, confirming the limitation is a property of the optimization landscape rather than of gradient-based optimization specifically. Real-world validation on two benchmark datasets demonstrates consistent advantages over both fixed and trainable unary baselines.