paper

Origins of Mercury's Big Heart of Iron: Exploring Pathways to Form High Core Mass Fraction (CMF) Planets via N-body Simulations

arXiv:2511.01842 · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ae2ff6

Abstract

Mercury's core mass fraction (CMF) is ~0.7, more than double that of the other rocky planets in the solar system, which have CMFs of ~0.3. The origin of Mercury's large, iron-rich core remains unknown. Adding to this mystery, an elusive population of "Exo-Mercuries" with high densities is emerging. Therefore, understanding the formation of Mercury and its exoplanetary analogs is essential to developing a comprehensive planet formation theory. Two hypotheses have been proposed to explain the high CMF of Mercury: (1) giant impacts during the latest stages of planet formation strip away mantle layers, leaving Mercury with a large core; and (2) earlier-stage iron enrichment of planetesimals closer to the Sun leads to the formation of an iron-rich planet. In this work, we conduct N-body simulations to test these two possibilities. Our simulations are focused on the solar system, however, we aim to provide a framework that can later be applied to the formation of high-CMF exoplanets. To investigate the giant impact scenario, we employ uniform initial CMF distributions. To address the other hypothesis, we use a step function with higher CMFs in the inner region. For a uniform initial CMF distribution, our results indicate that although erosive impacts produce iron-rich particles, without mechanisms that deplete stripped mantle material, these particles merge with lower-CMF objects and do not lead to Mercury's elevated CMF. However, a step function initial CMF distribution leads to the formation of a high-CMF planet alongside Earth-like planets, resembling the architecture of the terrestrial solar system.

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