Evaluating Large Language Models for automatic analysis of teacher simulations

Abstract

Digital Simulations (DS) provide safe environments where users interact with an agent through conversational prompts, providing engaging learning experiences that can be used to train teacher candidates in realistic classroom scenarios. These simulations usually include open-ended questions, allowing teacher candidates to express their thoughts but complicating an automatic response analysis. To address this issue, we have evaluated Large Language Models (LLMs) to identify characteristics (user behaviors) in the responses of DS for teacher education. We evaluated the performance of DeBERTaV3 and Llama 3, combined with zero-shot, few-shot, and fine-tuning. Our experiments discovered a significant variation in the LLMs' performance depending on the characteristic to identify. Similar variations also occurred in Phi-4-mini and Qwen-3. Additionally, we noted that DeBERTaV3 significantly reduced its performance when it had to identify new characteristics. In contrast, Llama 3 performed better than DeBERTaV3 in detecting new characteristics and showing more stable performance. Therefore, in DS where teacher educators need to introduce new characteristics because they change depending on the simulation or the educational objectives, it is more recommended to use Llama 3. These results can guide other researchers in introducing LLMs to provide automatic evaluations in DS.

Final published version in the Heliyon journal. Volume 12, Issue 14, September 2026, e45323. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2026.e45323